Vol. 26 No. 3 (2023)
Articles

RELIGIOSITY, EXPERIMENTIAL SYSTEM AND COPING WITH STRESS: THEORETICAL PREMISES

Download PDF
  • Maria Ivanova
DOI: https://doi.org/10.7546/PsyRB.2023.26.03.08

Published 10/24/2023

Keywords

  • Cognitive-experiential Self-theory,
  • constructive thinking,
  • religiosity,
  • coping

How to Cite

Ivanova, M. (2023). RELIGIOSITY, EXPERIMENTIAL SYSTEM AND COPING WITH STRESS: THEORETICAL PREMISES. Psychological Research (in the Balkans), 26(3). https://doi.org/10.7546/PsyRB.2023.26.03.08

Copyright (c) 2023 Psychological Research (in the Balkans)

Creative Commons License

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

Abstract

The paper aims to analyze the theoretical premises of research on the link between religiosity and experiential system concerning coping. A lot of empirical data confirm the impact of religiosity as an individual characteristic on coping with stress. Mainly, the research considers the findings in the context of Lazarus's psychological stress theory and suggests that religious persons apply specific coping strategies which positively or negatively affect mental health. Only a few explore the role of religiosity in the context of Cognitive-experiential self-theory (CEST), which focuses on the adaptive function of implicit beliefs operationalised in the construct of Constructive thinking. At the same time, recent surveys have indicated a negative relationship between constructive thinking and perceived stress. Also, CEST establishes the similarity between the cognitive-experiential system and religiosity and motivates scientific research in this field. However, the question “How am I religious” or which religious attitudes are resourceful or harmful in overcoming stressful situations remains open-ended. Exploring religiosity’s impact on coping in the Cognitive-experiential self-theory paradigm could enrich understanding of the adaptive and non-adaptive religious coping mechanisms.

Download PDF

References

  1. Abu-Raiya, H., Pargament, K., Krause, N. (2016). Religion as problem, religion as solution: Religious buffers of the links between religious/spiritual struggles and well-being/mental health. Quality of Life Research, 25, 1265-1274.
  2. Ai, A., Park, C., Huang, B., Rodgers, W, Tice, T. (2007). Psychosocial mediation of religious coping styles: a study of short-term psychological distress following cardiac surgery. Pers Soc Psychol Bull. Jun;33(6):867-82. doi: 10.1177/0146167207301008. Epub 2007 May 4. PMID: 17483394.
  3. Alker, H., Gawin, F. (1978). On the intrapsychic specificity of happiness. Journal of Personality, 46(2), 311–322. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.1978.tb00182.
  4. Allport, G. (1950). The individual and his religion: A psychological interpretation. New York: Macmillan.
  5. Allport, G. (1954). The nature of prejudice. Cambridge, MA: Addison-Wesley.
  6. Allport, G. (1959). Religion and prejudice. Crane Review, 2, 1-10.
  7. Allport, G. (1961). Pattern and growth in personality. New York: Holt, Rineharl & Winston.
  8. Allport, G. (1962). Prejudice: Is it societal or personal? Journal of Social Issues, 18(2), 120-134.
  9. Allport, G. (1963). Behavioral science, religion, and mental health. Journal of Religion and Health, 2, 187- 197.
  10. Allport, G. (1964). Mental health: A generic attitude. Journal of Religion and Health, 4, 7-21.
  11. Allport, G. (1966). The religious context of prejudice. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 5, 447- 457.
  12. Allport, G., Ross, J. (1967). Personal religious orientation and prejudice. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 5, 432-443
  13. Arévalo, S., Prado, G., Amaro, H. (2008) Spirituality, sense of coherence, and coping responses in women receiving treatment for alcohol and drug addiction. Evaluation and Program Planning. 31(1):113–123.
  14. Baker, M., Gorsuch, R. (1982). Trait anxiety and intrinsic–extrinsic religiousness. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 21(2), 119–122. https://doi.org/10.2307/1385497 (in Bulgarian).
  15. Bakracheva, M. (2017). Identity and coping with stress, S., Kolbis. ISBN 978-619-7284-17-1. COBISS.BG-ID – 1279797220 (in Bulgarian).
  16. Bakracheva, M., Zamfirov, M., Kolarova, Ts., Sofronieva, E. (2021). Life in crisis (COVID-19, wave 2). Veda Slovenia - ŽG.
  17. Batson, D., Schoenrade, P. (1991). Measuring religion as Quest: I. Validity concerns. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 30(4), 416–429. https://doi.org/10.2307/1387277
  18. Batson, D. (1976). Religion as prosocial: Agent or double agent? Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 15(1), 29–45. https://doi.org/10.2307/1384312
  19. Batson, D., Darley, M., Coke, S. (1978). Altruism and Human Kindness: Internal and External Determinants of Helping Behavior. In: Pervin, L.A., Lewis, M. (eds) Perspectives in Interactional Psychology. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4613-3997-7_6.
  20. Batson, D., Gray, R. (1981). Religious orientation and helping behavior: Responding to one's own or the victim's needs? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 40(3), 511–520. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.40.3.511
  21. Batson, D., Ventis, L. (1982). The religious experience: A social psychological perspective. New York: Oxford University Press.
  22. Benson, P., Dehority, J., Garman, L., Hanson, E., Hochschwender, M., Lebold, C., Rohr, R., Sullivan J. (1980) Intrapersonal Correlates of Nonspontaneous Helping Behavior, The Journal of Social Psychology, 110:1, 87-95, DOI: 10.1080/00224545.1980.9924226
  23. Bentzen, J. (2021). In crisis, we pray: Religiosity and the COVID-19 pandemic. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 192, 541-583. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jebo.2021.10.014
  24. Bjorck, J., Thurman, J. (2007). Negative life events, patterns of positive and negative religious coping, and psychological functioning. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 46(2), 159–167. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-5906.2007.00348.x
  25. Carver, S., Connor-Smith, J. (2010). Personality and coping. Annu Rev Psychol. 61:679-704. doi: 10.1146/annurev.psych.093008.100352. PMID: 19572784.
  26. Cassibba, R., Papagna, S., Calabrese, M., Costantino, E., Paterno, A., Granqvist, P. (2014). The role of attachment to God in secular and religious/spiritual ways of coping with a serious disease. Mental Health, Religion & Culture, 17(3), 252–261. https://doi.org/10.1080/13674676.2013.795138
  27. Chan, C., Rhodes, J. (2013). Religious coping, posttraumatic stress, psychological distress, and posttraumatic growth among female survivors four years after Hurricane Katrina. J Trauma Stress. Apr;26(2):257-65. doi: 10.1002/jts.21801. Epub 2013 Mar 25. PMID: 23529889.
  28. Cohen, S., Kamarck, T., Mermelstein, R. (1983). A global measure of perceived stress. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 24(4), 385–396. https://doi.org/10.2307/2136404
  29. Connor-Smith, J., Flachsbart, C. (2007). Relations between personality and coping: A meta-analysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 93, 1080-1307. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.93.6.1080
  30. Crandall, J., Rasmussen, R. (1975). Purpose in life as related to specific values. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 31(3), 483–485.
  31. Darley, J., Batson, D. "From Jerusalem to Jericho": A study of Situational and Dispositional Variables in Helping Behavior". JPSP, 1973, 27.
  32. Donahue, M. (1985). Intrinsic and extrinsic religiousness: Review and meta-analysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 48, 400-419. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.48.2.400
  33. Epstein, S. (1990). “Cognitive-experiential self-theory,” in Handbook of Personality: Theory and Research, ed. L. Pervin (New York, NY: Guilford Press), 165–192.
  34. Epstein, S. (1994). Integration of the cognitive and the psychodynamic unconscious. In: American Psychologist, 49, 709–724. doi: 10.1037/0003-066X.49.8.709
  35. Epstein, S., Meier, P. (1989) Constructive thinking: a broad coping variable with specific components. J Pers Soc Psychol. Aug;57(2):332-50. doi: 10.1037//0022-3514.57.2.332. PMID: 2760807.
  36. Epstein, S., Pacini, R., Denes-Raj, V., Heier, H. (1996). Individual differences in intuitive-experiential and analytical-rational thinking styles. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 71, 390–405. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.71.2.390
  37. Epstein, S. (1998). Cognitive-experiential self-theory: A dual-process personality theory with implications for diagnosis and psychotherapy. In R. F. Bornstein & J. M. Masling (Eds.), Empirical perspectives on the psychoanalytic unconscious (pp. 99–140). American Psychological Association.
  38. Epstein, S. (2003). “Cognitive-experiential self-theory of personality,” in Handbook of Psychology: Personality and Social Psychology, eds T. Millon and M. J. Lerner (Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Son Inc.), 159–184.
  39. Epstein, S., Donovan, S., and Denes-Raj, V. (1999). The missing link in the paradox of the Linda conjunction problem: beyond knowing and thinking of the conjunction rule, the intrinsic appeal of heuristic processing. Pers. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 25, 204–214. doi: 10.1177/0146167299025002006
  40. Epstein, S., and Pacini, R. (2001). The influence of visualization on intuitive and analytical information processing. Imagin. Cogn. Pers. 20, 195–216. doi: 10.2190/G4VG-AKQP-2Q91-JQHP
  41. Exline, J. (Ed.). (2013). Religious and spiritual struggles. In K. I. Pargament, J. J. Exline, & J. W. Jones (Eds.), APA handbook of psychology, religion, and spirituality (Vol. 1): Context, theory, and research (pp. 459–475). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/14045-025
  42. Francis, B., Gill, J., Yit Han, N. Petrus, C. Azhar, F., Ahmad, Z., Said, M., Ong Hui, K., Chong Guan, N., Sulaiman, A. (2019). Religious Coping, Religiosity, Depression and Anxiety among Medical Students in a Multi-Religious Setting. Int J Environ Res Public Health, Jan 17;16(2):259. doi: 10.3390/ijerph16020259. PMID: 30658450; PMCID: PMC6352239.
  43. Gardner, T., Krägeloh, C., Henning, M. (2014). Religious coping, stress, and quality of life of Muslim university students in New Zealand. Mental Health, Religion and Culture. 17(4):327–338. doi: 10.1080/13674676.2013.804044.
  44. Genia, V., Shaw, D. (1991). Religion, Intrinsic-Extrinsic Orientation, and Depression. Review of Religious Research, 32(3), 274–283. https://doi.org/10.2307/3511212
  45. Himcinschi, M., Buzgar, R., Pintea, S. (2022). The effects of religiosity and spiritual well-being on perceived stress during Covid-19 pandemic. European Journal of Science and Theology, August, Vol.18, No.4, 19-32.
  46. Holdcroft, B. (2006). What is religiosity? Journal of Catholic Education, 10(1), 89–103. https://doi.org/10.15365/joce.1001082013
  47. Hoge, D., Carroll, J. (1973). Religiosity and prejudice in northern and southern churches. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 12(2), 181–197. https://doi.org/10.2307/1384888
  48. Holt, C., Clark, E., Debnam, K., Roth, D. (2014) Religion and Health in African Americans: The Role of Religious Coping. American Journal of Health Behavior. 38(2):190–199. doi: 10.5993/AJHB.38.2.4.
  49. Hristova, A., Karastoyanov, G. (2000). Carl Jung's psychological types and stress. Sofia, Propeller (in Bulgarian).
  50. Hristova, A., Karastoyanov, G. (2021). Stress and coping during the first wave of COVID-19 in Bulgaria. Psychological Research; 24 (1); 5-22 (in Bulgarian).
  51. Hurley, J. (1990). Constructive Thinking and Elevated Ratings of Self in Interpersonal Groups, The Journal of Psychology, 124:5, 563-573, DOI: 10.1080/00223980.1990.10543249
  52. Hurley, J. (1991) Related Measures of Constructive and Rational Thinking, The Journal of Psychology, 125:2, 229-235, DOI: 10.1080/00223980.1991.10543286
  53. Kahoe, R. (1974). Personality and achievement correlates of intrinsic and extrinsic religious orientations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 29(6), 812–818. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0036222.
  54. Karastoyanov, G., Petkova, S. (2021). Self-esteem and habitual stress coping strategies. Collection of reports from the jubilee international scientific conference "Applied psychology - opportunities and perspectives", Varna Free University "Chernorizets Hrabar", University Publishing House (in Bulgarian).
  55. Karastoyanov, G., Hristova, A. (2000). Bulgarian adaptation of the perceived stress questionnaire. Psychological Research, Vol. 1–2, pp. 67–77 (in Bulgarian).
  56. Koenig, H. (2009). Research on religion, spirituality, and mental health: a review. Can J Psychiatry. May; 54(5):283-91. doi: 10.1177/070674370905400502. PMID: 19497160.
  57. Koenig, H. (2012) Religion, spirituality, and health: the research and clinical implications. ISRN Psychiatry. Dec 16; 2012:278730. doi: 10.5402/2012/278730. PMID: 23762764; PMCID: PMC3671693.
  58. Koenig, H., George, L., Siegler, I. (1988). The use of religion and other emotion-regulating coping strategies among older adults. Gerontologist, 28, 303–310.
  59. Kojetin, B., McIntosh, D., Bridges, R., Spilka, B. (1987). Quest: Constructive search or religious conflict? Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 26(1), 111–115. https://doi.org/10.2307/1385845
  60. Kranz, D., Niepel, C., Botes, E., Greiff, S. (2023). Religiosity predicts unreasonable coping with COVID-19. Psychology of Religion and Spirituality, 15(1), 1–5. https://doi.org/10.1037/rel0000395
  61. Krause, N. (2006). Religious Doubt and Psychological Well-Being: A Longitudinal Investigation. Review of Religious Research, 47(3), 287–302. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3512359
  62. Lee, Y. (2014). The relationship of spiritual well-being and involvement with depression and perceived stress in Korean nursing students. Global Journal of Health Science. 6(4):169–176. doi: 10.5539/gjhs. v6n4p169
  63. Lazarus, R. (1966). Psychological stress and the coping process. New York: McGraw-Hill.
  64. Lazarus R., Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, Appraisal and Coping. New York: Springer
  65. Lazarus, R., Folkman, S. (1987). Transactional theory and research on emotions and coping. European Journal of Personality, 1(3, Spec Issue), 141–169. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.2410010304
  66. Lazarus, R. (1991). Emotion and Adaptation. New York: Oxford University Press.
  67. Lazarus, R. S. (1993). Coping theory and research: Past, present, and future. Psychosomatic Medicine, 55, 234 – 247
  68. Leong, F., Zachar, P. (1990). An evaluation of Allport's Religious Orientation Scale across one Australian and two United States samples. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 50(2), 359–368. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013164490502014
  69. Lu, Y. (2015). Is experiential-intuitive cognitive style more inclined to err on conjunction fallacy than analytical-rational cognitive style? Frontiers in Psychology, 6, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00085
  70. Mahamid, F., Bdier, D. (2021). The Association Between Positive Religious Coping, Perceived Stress, and Depressive Symptoms During the Spread of Coronavirus (COVID-19) Among a Sample of Adults in Palestine: Across Sectional Study. J Relig Health. Feb;60(1):34-49. doi: 10.1007/s10943-020-01121-5. Epub 2021 Jan 2. PMID: 33389439; PMCID: PMC7778573.
  71. McClain, E. (1978). Personality differences between intrinsically religious and nonreligious students: A factor analytic study. Journal of Personality Assessment, 42(2), 159–166. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa4202_8
  72. Minton, B., Spilka, B. (1976). Perspectives on death in relation to powerlessness and form of personal religion. Omega: Journal of Death and Dying, 7(3), 261–268. https://doi.org/10.2190/A692-9EPD-L2KE-T192
  73. Navara, G. (2001). Acculturation of missionaries: Religious orientation, coping and adjustment, Theses and Dissertations (Comprehensive). 710.https://scholars.wlu.ca/etd/710
  74. Pargament, K., Smith, B., Koenig, H., Perez, L. (1998). Patterns of positive and negative religious coping with major life stressors. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 37(4), 710–724. https://doi.org/10.2307/1388152
  75. Pargament, K., Tarakeshwar, N., Ellison, C., Wulff, K. (2001). Religious coping among the religious: The relationships between religious coping and well-being in a national sample of Presbyterian clergy, elders, and members. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 40(3), 497–513. https://doi.org/10.1111/0021-8294.00073
  76. Pargament, K., Feuille, M., Burdzy, D. (2011). The Brief RCOPE: Current psychometric status of a short measure of religious coping. Religions, 2(1), 51–76. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel2010051
  77. Pargament, K., Olsen, H., Reilly, B., Falgout, K., Ensing, D., Van Haitsma, K. (1992). God help me: II. The relationship of religious orientations to religious coping with negative life events. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 31(4), 504–513. https://doi.org/10.2307/1386859
  78. Pargament, K., Ensing, D., Falgout, K. et al. (1990). God help me: (I): Religious coping efforts as predictors of the outcomes to significant negative life events. Am J Commun Psychol 18, 793–824. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00938065.
  79. Park, C. (2005) Religion as a Meaning-Making Framework in Coping with Life Stress. Journal of Social Issues, 61, 707-729. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4560.2005.00428.x
  80. Pennycook, G., Ross, R. (2016). Commentary: Cognitive reflection vs. calculation in decision making. Frontiers in Psychology, 7, Article 9. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00009
  81. Peres, M., Kamei, H., Tobo, P., Lucchetti, G. (2018). Mechanisms behind religiosity and spirituality’s effect on mental health, quality of life and well-being. Journal of Religion and Health. 57(5):1842–1855. doi: 10.1007/s10943-017-0400-6
  82. Plohl, N., Musil, B. (2021). Modeling compliance with COVID-19 prevention guidelines: The critical role of trust in science. Psychology, Health & Medicine, 26(1), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1080/13548506.2020.1772988
  83. Plomecka, M., Gobbi, S., Neckels, R., Radzinski, P., Skorko, B., Lazzeri, S., Almazidou, K., Dedic, A., Bakalovic, A., Hrustic, L., Ashraf, Z., Es Haghi, S., Rodriguez-Pino, L., Waller, V., Jabeen, H., Alp, A., Behnam, M., Shibli, D., Baranczuk-Turska, Z., Haq, Z., Qureshi, S., Strutt, A., Jawaid, A. (2021). Factors Associated With Psychological Disturbances During the COVID-19 Pandemic: Multicountry Online Study. JMIR Ment Health. (2021) Aug 19;8(8):e28736. doi: 10.2196/28736. PMID: 34254939; PMCID: PMC8396308.
  84. Rasheva, M. (2006). Coping with stress and depression. Sofia, AI "Prof. Marin Drinov" (in Bulgarian).
  85. Ramsay, J., Tong, E., Chowdhury, A., Ho, M. (2019). Teleological explanation and positive emotion serially mediate the effect of religion on well-being. J. Pers. 87, 676–689. doi: 10.1111/jopy.12425
  86. Rigoli, F. (2021). The Link Between COVID-19, Anxiety, and Religious Beliefs in the United States and the United Kingdom. J Relig Health. 2021 Aug;60(4):2196-2208. doi: 10.1007/s10943-021-01296-5. Epub 2021 May 29. PMID: 34050906; PMCID: PMC8164065.
  87. Rosmarin, D., Bigda-Peyton, J., Öngur, D., Pargament, K., Björgvinsson, T. (2013). Religious coping among psychotic patients: relevance to suicidality and treatment outcomes. Psychiatry Res. Nov 30;210(1):182-7. doi: 10.1016/j.psychres.2013.03.023. Epub 2013 May 15. PMID: 23684053.
  88. Sasaki, J., Kim, H. (2011). At the intersection of culture and religion: A cultural analysis of religion's implications for secondary control and social affiliation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 101(2), 401–414. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0021849
  89. Seybold, K., Hill, P. (2001). The Role of Religion and Spirituality in Mental and Physical Health. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 10, 21-24. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8721.00106
  90. Shenhav, A., Rand, D., Greene, J. (2012). Divine intuition: Cognitive style influences belief in God. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 141(3), 423–428.https://doi.org/10.1037/a0025391
  91. Spilka, B., Shaver, P., Kirkpatrick, L. (1985). A General Attribution Theory for the Psychology of Religion. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 24(1), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.2307/1386272
  92. Sturgeon, R., Hamley, R. (1979). Religiosity and anxiety. The Journal of Social Psychology, 108(1), 137–138. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224545.1979.9711977.
  93. Szałachowski, R., Tuszyńska-Bogucka, W. “Dies Irae?” The Role of Religiosity in Dealing with Psychological Problems Caused by the COVID-19 Pandemic—Studies on a Polish Sample. Religions 2021, 12, 267. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel12040267.
  94. Sweeny, K., Tran, B., Ramirez Loyola, M. (2023). Religiosity as a predictor of worry during stressful periods of uncertainty. Psychology of Religion and Spirituality, 15(1), 18–24. https://doi.org/10.1037/rel0000413
  95. Ting, R., Goh, P., Ong, E. (2023). A Mixed-Methods Study on Religiosity, Pandemic Beliefs, and Psychological Well-Being During the COVID-19 Pandemic in Malaysia. Pastoral Psychol (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11089-023-01080-0
  96. Tix, A.., Frazier, P. (1998). The use of religious coping during stressful life events: Main effects, moderation, and mediation. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 66(2), 411–422. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.66.2.411
  97. Vishkin, A., Bloom, P., Tamir, M. (2019). Always look on the bright side of life: religiosity, emotion regulation and well-being in a Jewish and Christian sample. J. Happiness Stud. 20, 427–447. doi: 10.1007/s10902-017-9956-9
  98. Watson, P., Morris, R., Hood, R. (1990). Intrinsicness, Self-Actualization, and the Ideological Surround. Journal of Psychology and Theology, 18(1), 40–53. https://doi.org/10.1177/009164719001800104
  99. Watson, P., Morris, R., Hood, R., Miller, W., Liv, Jr. (1999) Religion and the Experiential System: Relationships of Constructive Thinking with Religious, The International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 9:3, 195-207, DOI: 10.1207/ s15327582ijpr0903_3
  100. Watson, P., Morris, R., Hood, R., Milliron, J., Stutz, N. (1998). Religious orientation, identity, and the quest for meaning in ethics within an ideological surround. International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 8(3), 149–164. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327582ijpr0803_1
  101. Watson, P., Morris, R., Hood, R., Miller, L., Waddell, M. (1999). Religion and the experiential system: Relationships of constructive thinking with religious orientation. International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 9(3), 195–207. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327582ijpr0903_3
  102. Wiebe, K., Fleck, J. (1980). Personality correlates of intrinsic, extrinsic, and nonreligious orientations. The Journal of Psychology: Interdisciplinary and Applied, 105(2), 181–187. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223980.1980.9915149
  103. Zinnbauer, B., Pargament, K. (1998). Spiritual conversion: A study of religious change among college students. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 37(1), 161–180. https://doi.org/10.2307/1388035
  104. Zuckerman, M., Li, C., Lin, S., Hall, J. A. (2020). The negative intelligence–religiosity relation: New and confirming evidence. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 46(6), 856–868. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167219879122